Raja Raja Cholan's Memorial(Samadhi)

This is the video footage which shows the dilapidated condition of the memorial(Samadhi) of Raja Raja Cholan(Arul Mozhi Varman),one of the greatest rulers India has ever seen.I was in tears watching this video.Ever since reading Kalki's Ponniyin Selvan and several other novels based on his life,I was fascinated by him and that inspired me look deep in to Tamil's history.I can't
say I know the history inside out but as far as I know he ranks among the likes of Ashoka,Samudra Gupta and Akbar.In fact it was under his reign that KUDAMUZHUKKU(an exercise by which the village head would be elected by the people of that particular village through election) system was introduced.I'll write about this syatem in detail some other day.In a way it was a predeccesor to the modern day elections.A 1000 year old memorial of a emperor lying in shambles and our Chief Minister spends crores for installing a statue of some unknown poet.This could happen only in Tamil Nadu.GTH guys.

COMPREHENSIVE LIST OF LATER PANDYA KINGS

Jatavarman Kulasekara-I :- 1190 AD to 1210 AD:

He was son of Vikraman. His Meikeerthi is a very good source. He fought and

compromised with the Chola king Kulothunga-III. His reign may be

regarded as an important land mark in the history of the second Pandyas.

He ruled Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Thirunelveli and Kanyakumari

areas. He created the Rajagambira Chaturvedi mangalam, consisting

of 1030 Brahmadeyas. So he was known as “Rajagambeera”. He

appointed Maravarman SundaraPandya as his crown prince.

Maravarman SundaraPandya - I :-1216 AD to 1231 AD:

He was the brother of Jadavarman kulasekara. He had titles like Kaliyugarama,

AdisayaPandyadeva. The King SundaraPandya was an ambitious

competant, and capable ruler. He fought wars against the cholas and

the Kongu kings. Maravarman sundaraPandya captured some portions

of Trichy and modern Pudukottai districts. A good part of the Vishnu

temple at Tiruttangal was built. After him Jadavarman Kulasekara– II

ruled for sometime.

Maravarman Sundara Pandya - II :- 1238 AD to 1253 AD:

He made many grants to temples. He defeated the chola king

Rajendra-III.

Jatavarman Sundara Pandya - I :- 1251AD to 1268AD:

He succeeded Maravarman Sundara Pandya – II. He had title as Tribhuvana

Chakravarthy for conquering Elam, Kongu and the chola kingdom.

During his time the Pandya kingdom became the Pandya empire. The

cholas completely disappeared from the Tamil scene. The hoysalas

retreated to the Mysore highlands. Ceylon was conquered. The

Kongudesam became a province of the Pandya kingdom. The chera

ruler was defeated. Due to these victories Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-

I was known as “Emmandalamum Kondarulliya pandiya”.

Religious Endowments: Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-I provided the

roof of Nataraja Shrine in Chidambaram with gold tiles. He built a hall

and the west tower of Chidambaram temple. He rendered the same

golden service to the Ranganatha swami shrine in Srirangam. So he

was titled as “Ponveintha Perumal”. He also endowed liberally to some

Jain pallis. He patronised Saivism, Vaishnavism and Hinduism. He

coronated his son Maravarman Kulasekaran-I as the crown prince.

Maravarman Kulasekaran–I: 1268AD–1308 AD:

During his reign foreign writer Morcopolo visited Tamil country and wrote about

it. The social condition of the Tamil country was known from the writings

of Muslim historian Wassaf. Maravarman captured kollam from Chera

nadu. Due to this he was called as “Kollamkonda Pandya”. He invaded Ceylon and brought huge wealth from Subhagiri fortress and the tooth

relic of the Buddha to Madurai. His Kingdom expanded till cholanadu

and upto Thondaimandalam. He appointed Jatavaraman Sundara Pandya

as Viceroy of the Kongu country and Maravarman Vikrama Pandya as

Viceroy of Chengleput and South Arcot Districts. He built the outer

wall of Nellaiyapper temple in Tirunelveli.

War of success among the Pandya heir apparents made the

muslim rulers to invade Pandya kingdom. Malik Kafur invaded and

carried away as much loote as possible. The whole Pandya country

became part of Muslim empire. The second Pandya rule which lasted

for 120 years marked a significant land mark in the history of Tamil

country. During the period of second Pandya rule the glory of the Pandyas

expanded to North only to north India but also to Srilanka.

WHY IS RAJA RAJA STANDING OUTSIDE??

Why do the Hindi politicians who control the Indian Government refuse permission to install Emperor Raja Raja Cholan's statue within the outer walls of the Thanjai Big Temple?

Many thousands of Hindu devotees and tourists from around the world visit the Thanjai Big Temple. If Raja Rajan's statue is installed on the temple grounds for all to see, they may ask the others and tour guides about him and will come to know of his conquests, his majesty and the glorious days of the Second Golden Age of Tamil Nadu. The Hindian controlled Indian Government does not want people to know about this glorious past and the great kings of Tamil Nadu who are second to none. Hindian politicians and elite want people to think that all the glorious past of Indian history is centered on the Hindi heartland of today. They want to hide and put under a blanket all other histories, be it that of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala or Tamil Nadu, for example.

Read the history books used at schools under the jurisdiction of the Indian Government (Central Schools and schools accredited under the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)). You will read in detail about the kings and emperors who ruled from what is today the Hindi heartland, for example, Chandra Guptan, Ashokan, Akbar, et al. But you will not read very little about the Tamil kings or the Bengali kings or the Assamese kings, etc. (Count the pages in those books. Tamil kings get less than 5% of what is allotted for kings from the present Hindi belt region. Great kings like Senguttuvan and Karikalan are not even mentioned.) In the Indian history according to Hindians, these lands do not have a glorious history worth mentioning although, in truth, every one of these nations has a rich past. Refusal to grant permission to install the statue of one of the greatest emperors of South Asia on the grounds of the temple he built is just another attempt by the Hindian politicians to hide the glorious past of the Tamil people.

(NOTE: Emperor Raja Raja Cholan is not the only one whose history the Indian Government wants to hide. About two decades ago, the then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi tried to distort the history of Emperor Rajendra Cholan's conquest of the Ganges Plains (today's Hindi land). I published an article about it in the Tamil magazine ":Thamizh Nilam" a decade ago.)

About a year after the publication of the article, in January 2002, the Indian Government controlled National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) released the new curriculum for Indian History to be taught at Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and other schools affiliated with the Indian Government. It came under criticism from some historians. The noted educator Dr. Arjun Dev said that no political unit of the Deccan and South, except the Rashtrakutas, find a mention in the syllabus of ancient India for Class XI. Even the Satavahanas, Pallavas, Chalukyas and Cholas do not find a place.

DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE

"The temple city of Madurai is situated at a distance of 307 miles south of Madras on the main railway line. This is decidedly the oldest city of South India, truly representing Dravidian culture. European scholars have compared it to Athens of Greece. It was in the past the seat of the Tamil Academy (the Tamil Sangam) .... It is estimated that there are 33 million carvings in the Madurai temple. The temple stands in the centre of the town and main roads run roughly parallel to the four sides. A writer has described the architecture as follows: "The architecture is almost purely Dravidian - its characteristics being the pyramidal towers of colossal height dominating the surrounding landscape for miles around; the rectangular enclosures one within the other like a China box; the use of the flat roof and the entire absence of the arch or dome; delicate sculpture worked in ponderous material, and finally a partiality for long galleries interspersed with sculptured pillars..." (R .K.Das in Temples of Tamil Nadu)

"Gopuram, in South Indian architecture, is the entrance gateway to the Hindu temple enclosure. Relatively small in the earlier period, the gopuras grew in size from the mid-12th century until the colossal gateways came to dominate the temple complex, quite surpassing the main sanctum for architectural elaboration.." (Gopurams - Encyclopaedia Britannica)

"...Tirumulla Nayak commenced a gopura, which, had he lived to complete it, would probably have been the finest edifice of its class in southern India. It measures 174 ft. from north to south, and 107 ft. in depth. The entrance through it is 21 ft. 9 in. wide; and if it be true that its gateposts are 6o ft. (Tripe says 57 ft.) in height, that would have been the height of the opening. It will thus be seen that it was designed on even a larger scale than that at Sri Rangam, and it certainly far surpasses that celebrated edifice in the beauty of its details. Its doorposts alone, whether 57 ft. or 6o ft. in height, are single blocks of granite, carved with the most exquisite scroll patterns of elaborate foliage, and all the other carvings are equally beautiful. Being unfinished, and consequently never consecrated, it has escaped whitewash, and alone, of all the buildings of Madura, its beauties can still be admired in their original perfection. The great temple at Madura ...possesses...all the characteristics of a first-class Dravidian temple, and, as its date is perfectly well known, it forms a landmark of the utmost value in enabling us to fix the relative date of other temples. The sanctuary is said to have been built by Viswanath, the first king of the Nayak dynasty, A.D. 1520, which may possibly be the case; but the temple itself certainly owes all its magnificence to Tirumulla Nayak, A.D. 1622-1657, or to his elder brother, Muttu Virappa, who preceded him, and who built a mantapa, said to be the oldest thing now existing here. The Kalyana mantapa is said to have been built A.D. 1707, and the Tatta Suddhi in 1770.These, however, are insignificant parts compared with those which certainly owe their origin to Tirumulla Nayak..." (Temple of Madura )

TAMIL NADU UNDER SINHALA OCCUPATION(ITS TRUE MATES)

Tamil Nadu was divided into three principal kingdoms, namely, Chera Nadu, Chola Nadu and Pandya Nadu, and ruled by Chera, Chola and Pandya kings. (This arrangement goes back to from the very beginning of written Tamil history.) During the reign of Rajathi Raja Cholan II over Chola Nadu (1163 - 1179), there was a quarrel within the Pandyan royal family for the throne of Pandiya Nadu. Both Parakkirama Pandyan and Kulasekhara Pandyan claimed the throne. Local chieftains within Pandya Nadu (who ruled small principalities subservient to the Pandya throne) took sides and a civil war ensued in Pandya Nadu.

Parakkirama Pandyan held the capital city of Madurai and Kulasekhara Pandyan laid siege to it. Instead of keeping the fight within Pandya Nadu or even seeking help from a fellow Tamil king, Parakkirama Pandyan sought help from the Sinhala king Parakramabahu who was ruling the nearby island of Lanka. (Lanka is today called Sri Lanka. British called it Ceylon when it was part of the British Empire. Tamils used to call it Eelam or Ilankai. In recent years "Tamil Eelam" is used to refer to the historical Tamil homeland in the northern and eastern regions of the island.) Parakramabahu sent an army under the command of a Sinhala general, Lankapura (Lankapuri in Tamil). Before the army reached Pandya Nadu, Kulasekhara Pandyan capture Madurai and killed Parakkirama Pandyan. His son Veera Pandyan fled the capital and went into hiding. By now the Sinhala army landed in Pandya Nadu with orders from King Parakramabahu to defeat Kulasekhara Pandyan and put Veera Pandyan on the throne. The Sinhala army captured the coastal town of Rameshwaram and destroyed much of the famed Hindu temple for Lord Sivan (Lord Siva).

The Sinhala army marched from the coast into the interior of Pandya Nadu. It looted and burned many Tamil villages on the way. In the ensuing battles between the Sinhala army and Kulasekhara Pandyan's army, the latter met with defeat after defeat. Lankapura brought Veera Pandyan from hiding and installed him as the Pandya king in Madurai.

Kulasekhara Pandyan gathered all forces in Padya Nadu loyal to him and waged war again and won a major victory against Lankapura. Veera Pandyan fled Madurai again. Lankan King Parakramabahu sent reinforcements under the command of another Sinhala General, Jagat Vijaya (Jagat Vijayan). The combined forces of Lankapura and Jagat Vijaya defeated Kulasekhara Pandyan. The latter fled to the south (what is now known as Thirunelveli District) and sought help from the Chola King Rajathi Raja Cholan II. Rajathi Rajan sent an army under General Pallavarayan (Pallavarayar) to Pandya Nadu. He fought several battles with the Sinhalese army. Some of the major battles were at Thirukkanapaer, Thondi, Pasipon Amaravathi, Manamerkudi and Manjakudi. In the end Sinhalese army lost and Kulasekhara Pandyan became king of Pandya Nadu.

Furious at reports of the devastation of Pandya Nadu under the Sinhala army (looting and burning of villages, killing of villagers, desecration of the Rameswaram temple), Rajarthiraja Cholan ordered General Pallavarayan to capture and execute General Lankapuri who commanded the Sinhala army in Pandya Nadu. Pallavarayan pursued Lankapuri, captured him and beheaded him. The severed head was hoisted on a spear at the gates of Madurai, the Pandyan capital. Crows and other birds ate the flesh of the head, and the skull remained on display at the gates for months. Thus ended the occupation of Pandya Nadu (about one-third of Tamil Nadu) by the Sinhalese army. [NOTE: The beheading and the public display of the severed head may look uncivilized and barbaric today but it was not an uncommon practice in those days. Today war criminals are executed in private (example: many German and Japanese officers were executed after the Second Word War in the 1940s).]

POTRAMARAI KULAM OR GOLDEN LOTUS TANK

The history of this pond is as old as Madurai itself.When Kumari Kandam sank into the Indian ocean by repeated deluges, the TenMadurai of the Mudhal Sangam age and Kabadapuram of Idai sangam age submerged into the ocean depths. Later down history, the Pandyan Kings were on the look out for a place to build a new capital that will recapture the legendary glory of the sunken Madurai of their forefathers. According to legend , some merchants passing through a forest known as Kadambavanam saw a beautiful lotus pond and a wooden temple on its bank.They were so fascinated by this location that they reported about it to their king Kulasekara Pandian on return. Soon a 'lotus shaped' city was planned with the pond and temple as its center.
The lotus tank evolved into an important city center in the height of the last Pandian era. The area around this pond was the meeting place of the Kadai Sangam - the last of the ancient academy of poets.

The pond is now a source of too many myths or rather jokes…One is about the Tamil sangam… The story goes that the academy judged the worth of any work of literature presented before it by throwing it into this pond. Only those that did not sink were considered worthy of attention. Another joke i heard is that , the pond is the drop of nectare that fell form Shiva's hair and hence the city was named madurapuri (drop of nectare)! Iam pained to see that reputable and learned people of the city saying stuff like this and making a mockery of our great Sangam culture and our basic common sence!

SANGAM AGE: GOLDEN AGE OF TAMIL NADU

The Sangam Age in Tamilnadu witnessed prosperity in all spheres of life. The land was divided into Kurinji, Mullai, Marudam, Neitha! and Palai. The life of the people in these divisions differed. The hunters and honey gatherers lived in Kurinji, Mullai and Palai regions. The farmers and the fishermen lived in Marudam and Neithal lands respectively. The people of Sangam Age had a well-organized social life. They lived in both towns and rural areas. Agriculture, pearl fishing and weaving were some of the important occupations of the people. Fine arts like music, dance, drama and painting flourished. Temple architecture also flourished well during the rule of the ancient Tarnil kings.The hospitality of the ancient Tamils is proverbial. It was in high order and the tradition is continuing even today. Thiruvalluvar wrote much about hospitality in his Thirukkural.
Arruppadai speaks at length about the kings and the Feudatories who patronized the poets and the scholars.The Tamil people had observed certain social, religious and moral customs. They possessed the qualities of courage, honour, courtesy and loyalty. The Chera king Neduncheralathan went up to the Himalayas and returned victoriously. He assumed the title of Himayavaramban. A Chola king hoisted the tiger flag on the Himalayas. The ancient Tamils also had the practice of raising hero stones called Virakkals in honor of the heroes who died while fighting for the king. Receiving wounds in the battlefields at the back was considered as a shameful deed.
The women of the Sangam Age enjoyed respectable position. However, male chauvinism prevailed. Some women were educated. We come across women poets like Kaakkai Paadiniyar, Pon Mudiyar and Avvaiyar. Some of them had knowledge in politics. At times they used to advise the kings. Chastity was the most important virtue of Tamil women. They considered Karpu much more important for them than life itself. They were highly devoted towards their husbands. Chaste women were greatly respected in the society.
The Sangam people had brisk internal trade. The wholesalers, retailers and hawkers had indulged themselves in brisk trade. Barter system prevailed in internal trade. The business people sold their goods by openly announcing the profits that they were aiming at. Honest trade led to increased trade and the increased trade led to the increased prosperity. Integrity in trade was accepted as a general principleThe people of the Sangam age traded with Rome, Greece, Africa, Sri Lanka and South East Asia. The Romans liked the pearls of the Pandya kingdom. Gemstones, ivory, sandalwood, peacock, cotton and silks textiles and spices were exported to Greece and Rome. The ancient Tamils were religious minded. They worshipped Mother Goddess. They also worshipped Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, Indra and Varuna. Festival were organized periodically. The Sangam monarchs gave importance to justice. Hence their rule was benevolent.

PANDYA KINGDOM DURING SANGAM AGE

During the period of the second sangam the Pandyas had their capital at Kapatapuram and because of that they were also called as Kapata by the ancient custom of a person being called with the name of the place/Ur from where they come from. Thus the Pandyas were also called as the Kapatas. This Kapatas got transformed into Guptas during later period. When natural disaster struck Kapatapuram and destroyed the city the Pandyas capital has to be shifted along
with the people. They settled in present day Madurai on the banks of Vaigai away from the sea. After moving the capital to Madurai and extending/building the Meenakshi temple, the King started the third sangam there. The Cholas and the Elagais helped the Pandyas during this time. The Cholas already a matrimonial relationship with the Pandiyas as King Vijayalaya Cholan had already married a Pandyan princess. After the deluge Cholan men married lot of destitute Pandyan womens who had suffered because of the natural disaster. Some of them moved to Elagai as some(Northern) portion was ruled by the Cholas that time. This is mentioned in the Mahavamsa - the ceylonese chronicle. The pandya men joined the miltary
in large numbers. The Pandya king had to find a way to settle his uprooted people and provide land for agriculture to compensate for the lost land. He looked up North and that starts the campaign to get more land and starts the movement of Tamils to the North one of the many in history. This king was called Nilamtaru Tiruvir Pandyan or the Mudathirumaran the
lame.

TAMIL SANGAM'S HISTORY

The Tamil Sangams form one of the main parts of history for the Tamil people. It is a
tradition that they cherish and have been passing it on from generation to generation. Nobody knows exactly what it means and how it came about. According to some it was a literary academy where the scholars or poets met to discuss and criticize various things including literature in Tamilaham. It is mentioned in a commentary on the Iraiyanar Ahapporul.
It is said to have been composed by the sangam poet Nakkirar. According to tradition it was a literary academy established and supported by the Pandyan Kings. The first sangam or Talai sangam was established at Ten Madurai the capital of the Pandyan kings on the Indian Ocean shores. When a deluge destroyed Ten Madurai the capital was shifted to Kapatapuram and the second sangam called the idai sangam was established there. After sometime when kapatapuram too was destroyed by the sea the capital was shifted to present day Madurai away from the sea on the banks of the Vaigai. Madurai became the latest capital of the Pandyan kings and third sangam or Kadai sangam was established there. There are a number of historical persons and kings associated with these sangams. The Pandiyan king who ruled during the period of establishment of the Third sangam was Mudattirumaran who was lame. His other name was Ariyappadaikadanda Nedunjeliyan. He was contemporary of Karikalan Cholan and Senguttuvan Cheran and Elangai Gajabahu.

RAJENDRA CHOLA'S EXPLOITS

When Tamil histrorians talk about King Raja Rajendra Chola's exploits in South East Asia, we hear only the name of Kadaram that goes by the modern name of Kedah, a state in Malaysia today. Kedah has a wealth of ancient temple structures in the world famous Bujang Valley. Apart from Kadaram, there was also the Kingdom of Gangga Nagaram that lies in ruins today further down south after destruction by King Raja Rajendra.

There is yet another forgotten thousand year old city of Kota Gelanggi, raided by the same King, far down South, in the state of Johor. Its ruins in thick jungle have been established via aerial photos and a ground level expedition is being planned.

The discovery of this place hit the headlines of today's The Star newspaper, the major English in Malaysia.

This is the single most exciting news on the ancient history of Malaysia apart from the Bujang Valley.

That makes me wonder, what was King Raja Rajendra Cholan up to in Malaya? Kadaram lies at the northern extremity, Gangga Nagaram lies a little south of Kadaram, whereas Kota Gelanggi lies in the southern extremity of Malaya. All these were destroyed by King Raja Rajendra Cholan. That seems to me the total destruction of the then existing Malay Kingdoms. This was no ordinary battle but all out war.

BOOKS ON TAMIL CULTURE

Books in English

• History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 A.D.
  P.T. Srinivas Iyengar
  New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1982, Reprint
  
  
• A short history of the ancient Tamils and their literature
  Ratnaswami, Subramaniam
  Annamalainagar: Thaiyalnayaki Velideeyu, 1979
  
  
• The history of the growth of Tamil during the Indian War of Independence
  M.P. Sivagnanam; translated by K. Chellappan
  Madras: University of Madras, 1980
  
  
• Tamil renaissance and Dravidian nationalism 1905-1944
  K. Nambi Arooran
  Madurai: Koodal Publishers, 1980
  
  
• A topographical list of inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states
  T.V. Mahalingam
  New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research: S. Chand, 1985-
  
  
• Neolithic and megalithic cultures in Tamil Nadu
  B. Narasimhaiah
  Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 1980
  
  
• The Manipravala literature of the Srivaisnava Acaryas : 12th to 15th century A.D.
  Koil Kandadai Appan Venkatachari
  Bombay : Ananthacharya Research Institute, 1978.
  
  
• European impact on modern Tamil writing and literature
  Somalay [i.e. S.M.L. Lakshmanan Lena].
  Trivandrum : Dravidian Linguistic Association ; Madras,1976.
  
  
• Tamil ilakkiya varalaru, Ki. Pi. 1 nutal: Camanamum Tamilum, Pauttamum Tamilum, Vainavamum Tamilum
  E.S. Varataraja Aiyar
  Annamalainakar]: Annamalaip Palkalaik Kalakam, 1979
  
  
• The brahmin in the Tamil country
  N. Subrahmanian
  Madurai: Ennes Publications, 1989
  
  
• Tamil polity, c. A.D. 600-c. A.D. 1300
  Rajalakshmi, R.
  Madurai: Ennes Publications, 1983
  
  
• Symbols of substance, court and state in Nayaka period Tamilnadu
  Velcheru Narayana Rao, David Shulman, Sanjay Subrahmanyam
  Delhi; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992
  
  
• History of Tamil Nadu, 1565-1982
  K. Rajayyan
  Madurai: Raj Publishers, 1982
  
  
• The role of feudatories in later Chola history
  M.S. Govindasamy
  Annamalai Nagar: Annamalai University, 1979
  
  
• Selections from history of Tamilnadu, 1565-1965<^br> K. Rajayyan
  Madurai: Madurai Pub. House, 1978
  
  
• A history of the Maravas, 1700-1802
  S. Kadhirvel
  Madurai: Madurai Publishing House, 1977
  
  
• The congress in Tamilnad: nationalist politics in south India, 1919-1937
  David Arnold
  Columbia, Mo.: South Asia Books, 1977
  
  
• March to freedom in Madras Presidency, 1916-1947
  Saroja Sundararajan
  Madras: Lalitha Publications, 1989
  
  
• The national movement in Tamil Nadu, 1905-14: agitational politics and state coercion
  N. Rajendran
  Madras; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994
  
  
• Tamil: Sprache als politisches Symbol: politische Literatur in der Tamilsprache in den Jahren 1945 bis 1967: mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der Schriften der Fuhrer der dravidischen Bewegung E.V. Ramacami und C.N. Annaturai
  Dagmar Hellmann-Rajanayagam
  Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1984
  
  
• A history of the Tamil siddha cult
  R. Venkatraman
  Madurai: Ennes Publications, 1990
  
  
• Folk beliefs of the Tamils
  translated and edited by M. Shanmugam Pillai (1920 - ), Erica A.E. Claus
  Madurai: Muttu Patippakam, 1981
  
  
• Caste, nationalism and ethnicity: an interpretation of Tamil cultural history and social order
  J. Pandian
  Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1987
  
  
• Play, Symbolism, and Ritual : A Study of Tamil Brahmin Women's Rites of Passage
  Vasumathi K. Duvvury
  American University Studies, Series Xi, Anthropology and Sociology,4);
  Peter Lang Publishing, June 1991, ISBN: 0820411086
  
  
• The Powers of Tamil Women
  Susan S. Wadley (Editor)
  Syracuse Univ, November 1991, ISBN: 0915984423
  Foreign and Comparative Studies/South Asian Series, No 6)
  
  
• Shakti : Power in the Conceptual Structure of Karimper Religion
  Susan S. Wadley
  Univ of Chicago, June 1975, ISBN: 0916256014
  
  
• Tamil research through journals: (an annotated bibliography)
  A.A. Manavalan
  Madras: International Institute of Tamil Studies, 1975
  
  
• Mission and Tamil society: social and religious change in South India (1840-1900)
  Henriette Bugge
  Richmond: Curzon, 1994
  
  
• Chieftains of the Sangam age
  K.D. Thirunavukkarasu (Tirunavukkaracu, Ka. Ta., 1931- )
  Madras : International Institute of Tamil Studies, 1994.1st ed.
  
  

Books in Tamil

• Tamil nattuppura iyal ayvu
  patippaciriyar Ca. Ve. Cuppiramaniyan (Subramanian, Shanmuga Velayutham, 1929- )
  Cennai: Ulakat Tamilaraycci Niruvanam, 1979, 1st ed.
  International Institute of Tamil Studies Publication no.13
  
  
• thamizh naattup pazhankuti makkaL: vaazhvum varalaarum
  Cu. Caktivel (S. Sakthivel)
  Citamparam: Manivacakar Nulakam, 1980
  
  
• Tamizhum pirathuraikaLum
  patippaciriyar Na. Katikacalam. Ed. Cennai : Ulakat Tamilaraycci Niruvanam, 1994.1st.
  International Institute of Tamil Studies Publication, no. 191.
  

MARIAMMAN TEPPAKULAM

Vandiyur Mariamman Teppakulam is situated at a distance of about 5 km from the Meenakshi Amman Temple. The area of the tank, and the island pavilion with a garden in the center, is approximately equal to the area of Meenakshi Temple. It is one of the largest temple tanks in South India and gets water supply from the Vaigai River. There is a Vinayakar temple situated right in the middle of the tank, which is dedicated to Lord Vigneshwara, the Elephant-faced God.

According to mythology, earth was dug out from the tank to build the Tirumalai Nayakkar Mahal. The place was supposed to be blessed and was later converted into a Teppakulam (tank). The tank is connected to Vaigai River via underground channels. It has total of 12 long stairs (steps) made of granite on all four sides. The temple as well as the stairs was built by the King Thirumalai Nayak.

Mariamman Teppakulam is famous for the celebrations of the Float festival, which is celebrated in the Tamil month of Thai. The festival commemorates the birthday of King Thirumalai Nayak. The celebrations take place on a full moon night and the pristine water turns colourful as the temple is lit. The deities of the temple come down to the tank in colorful floats, presenting a mesmerizing sight. Pilgrims across India come to Madurai to participate in the festival.

EARLY PANDYAN SOCIETY

The Tamil society during the early Pandyan age had several class distinctions among the people, which were different from the Aryan classification of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The highest class, among the Tamils, was the Arivar or the sages. They were the ascetics that renounced materialism and mostly lived outside the cities. Next in rank were the Ulavar or the farmers. Following the Ulavar, were the Aiyar or shepherds, then Vedduvar or hunters, followed by artisans such as goldsmiths, blacksmiths etc., then Padaiadchier or the armed men, the Valayar or fishermen and finally the Pulayar or the scavengers. The higher classes enjoyed more privileges than the lower classes - for example, when the higher classes passed in the streets, the lower classes made way for them. The Pulayan, for ex., bowed in supplication if he met a nobleman. The class distinctions were quite conspicuous in many aspects of life - the dress worn by the people, the way they groomed themselves and the kind of food they subsisted on were all different from one class to another. In spite of such class-based social inequalities, there was no slavery in the society.
There was legal and social inequality between the sexes. Women had no rights on property and, in general, were subordinated by men. However, women mixed freely in the business and amusements of social life. In towns and cities, women of lower classes were employed as hawkers, vendors, shopkeepers or servants in rich households and in the villages, they worked in the fields and gardens along with men and shared their hardships. The ladies of the higher classes were more confined to their homes, but they were not secluded from society. The plight of widows was miserable – they were considered inauspicious and had to live life according to very strict rules. They were prohibited from decorating themselves or participating in any form of amusement. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in ancient Tamil country and was known as tippaydal. When the Pandyan king Pudappandiyan died, his queen killed herself by ascending the funeral pyre of the king. Women were exposed to education, a fact testified by the presence of many women poetesses in the Sangam works – some of them include Avvaiyar, Mudatamakkanniar, Kaakkaippaadiniyaar, Naachchellayaar, Naagaiyaar, Nanmullaiyaar, Ponmudiyaar, Ilaveyiniyaar and Nappasaliyaar.
A variety of clothing was used by people during this age, including those made of cotton and silk. People living in hilly and deserted areas wore dresses made of foliage and flowers. Sheaths of grassy weeds (Korai) were used for making dress by the hill and forest area people. Skins of animals and barks of trees were also used. Men of the poorer classes wore only one piece of cloth around the waist. Women covered their upper body with a kind of dress called, kachchu. Among the higher classes, men wore two pieces: one around the waist and the other, the upper cloth, thrown over the shoulders. Women of sophisticated society wore half sarees, made of the finest cotton and silk fabrics, with embroidery. Both men and women sported long tresses of hair. The diet was plain, rice being the staple cereal, with maize, millet, milk, butter and honey being in common use. Meat eating was common - people ate flesh of rams, deer, hare, fowl, porcupines, pigs and boar, fresh and dried fish. The kind of housing was determined by the type of geography of the land and the economic status of the occupants. The rich built their houses with tiled roofs and walls made of burnt bricks and mud, while the poor built their huts with mud and thatched it with grass, coconut leaves or palmyra palm leaves. Both in the huts and houses, the flooring was smeared with cowdung. The affluent had houses with porticoes, many storeys, open terraces and furnished their houses well. The inner walls of their houses were decorated with flowers and paintings, with cottages to protect them from the wind. Cots were in common use – the rich had luxurious beds decked with swan’s feathers and flowers, while the common people had beds woven with the straw of maize and the poorest people used beds made of grass or hay.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF EARLY PNDAVAS

Scholars have constructed the political history of the ancient Pandya country based on the classical works such as Purananuru, Pattu paatu and Padirrupattu. Even though these works don’t throw much light on the exact timelines of each king and their reign, they are considered trustworthy accounts that present facts as they occurred.
The first Pandyan king who has been mentioned in the Sangam works recovered so far is Nedunj Cheliyan I, who ruled from the coastal town of Korkai, at the mouth of river Tamraparni. During this time, the Tamil country consisted of several small kingdoms ruled over by independent chieftains, in addition to the three monarchies of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. In a bid to expand his territory, Nedunj Cheliyan I invaded the kingdom of Kudal (later renamed Madurai), which was under the rule of an independent chieftain, Akutai. He defeated Akutai and moved the capital of Pandyan kingdom to Madurai. This king also defeated an invading army from the Deccan and hence was called Aariyap Padaikadantha Pandyan or the king who conquered the Aryan army. He was succeeded by his son Pudappandiyan, who expanded the kingdom by conquering Ollaiyur (near modern day Pudukkottai) – an act that earned him the name Ollaiyur thantha Pudappandian. Both Pudappandiyan and his predecessor, Nedunj Cheliyan I, were poets themselves who contributed to the Purananuru collection.
The successor of Pudappandiyan was Nedunj Cheliyan II also known as "Pasumpun Pandyan." Immediately after ascending the throne, he marched with his troops to the north of Vaigai and defeated the chieftain Evvi II. He then headed west and captured the Aayi territory controlled by another chieftain, Atiyan. Both Evvi II and Atiyan were made commanders of the Pandyan army for his battles against Kongu country that was further west. From here he expanded the Pandyan kingdom almost to the western coast, which earned him the title Vidambalamba Ninra Pandyan (the Pandyan whose kingdom was washed by two seas). Since he was responsible for expanding the Pandyan kingdom by annexing several kingdoms, he was also called Pannadu thantha Pandyan (the Pandyan who annexed many lands). His successor, Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi, was also a great warrior and carried the devastation into enemy territories. He performed yagas with the aid of Brahmin priests, similar to the tradition in northern India at that time.
The next king in the hierarchy was Nedunj Cheliyan III, who is considered the greatest of all the early Pandyan kings. Since the Pandyan kingdom was considerably larger than a few generations ago, he had to defend it against many neighbors invading from various fronts. Not only did he succeed in defending his territory, he also seems to have advanced into the enemy territories – the southern province of Cholas and eastern province of the Cheras. At one point, it is said that a coalition of his neighbors including the Cheras, Cholas and five other kingdoms, met him at a pitched battle in Talaialanganam, in present day Tanjore district. Nedunj Cheliyan emerged victorious in the battle that ensued and ended up annexing several new territories to his kingdom. He thus came to be known as Talaialanganathu Seruvendra Pandyan. The genealogy after this king is not very clear but there are at least four other kings who are thought to have ruled in the immediate succeeding generations. Notable among them were, Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan for the fact that he conquered the town of Musiri on the coast of the Arabian Sea and Ukkirap Peruvaludi for the fact that it was in his court that the famous poet Tiruvalluvar submitted his much-acclaimed work Tirukkural.

VILLAGE DEITY AYYANAR

Ayyanar or Sathanar worship is a very ancient ancestral clan-based worship system linked to nature and fertility worship. The festivals of Ayyanars,a popular village deity in and around madurai are celebrated in Sacred Groves during spring season by all the related clan. Ayyanar shrines are usually located at the peripheries or boundaries of rural villages and the deity is seen riding a horse with a sword. Weapons such as a trident or a lance are also associated with the shrine. Most officiating priests are non-Brahmins and derive from local lineages that had initiated the cult centers generations ago.
The worship pattern is non-agamic and is associated with sacrificial offerings of pure vegetarian food. However animals such as chicken and goats are offered to few of the selected 21 associate deities (Kaval deivangal) such as Karuppa samy, Sudalai maadan samy and some other Amman deities located within Ayyanar temple for favors. In return the local priest might offer holy flowers or Veeputhi (holy ash) to the worshippers. Folk Tales like koothu and Folk arts like villupattu are enacted to bring out the message of the Ayyanar folk story to one and all.

A GRAVE INJUSTICE

Why do the Hindi politicians who control the Indian Government refuse permission to install Emperor Raja Raja Cholan's statue within the outer walls of the Thanjai Big Temple?
Many thousands of Hindu devotees and tourists from around the world visit the Thanjai Big Temple. If Raja Rajan's statue is installed on the temple grounds for all to see, they may ask the others and tour guides about him and will come to know of his conquests, his majesty and the glorious days of the Second Golden Age of Tamil Nadu. The Hindian controlled Indian Government does not want people to know about this glorious past and the great kings of Tamil Nadu who are second to none. Hindian politicians and elite want people to think that all the glorious past of Indian history is centered on the Hindi heartland of today. They want to hide and put under a blanket all other histories, be it that of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala or Tamil Nadu, for example.
Read the history books used at schools under the jurisdiction of the Indian Government (Central Schools and schools accredited under the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)). You will read in detail about the kings and emperors who ruled from what is today the Hindi heartland, for example, Chandra Guptan, Ashokan, Akbar, et al. But you will not read very little about the Tamil kings or the Bengali kings or the Assamese kings, etc. (Count the pages in those books. Tamil kings get less than 5% of what is allotted for kings from the present Hindi belt region. Great kings like Senguttuvan and Karikalan are not even mentioned.) In the Indian history according to Hindians, these lands do not have a glorious history worth mentioning although, in truth, every one of these nations has a rich past. Refusal to grant permission to install the statue of one of the greatest emperors of South Asia on the grounds of the temple he built is just another attempt by the Hindian politicians to hide the glorious past of the Tamil people.
(NOTE: Emperor Raja Raja Cholan is not the only one whose history the Indian Government wants to hide. About two decades ago, the then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi tried to distort the history of Emperor Rajendra Cholan's conquest of the Ganges Plains (today's Hindi land). )

RAJA RAJA CHOLAN'S BIOGRAPHY

Who is this Raja Raja Cholan (more precisely, Raja Raja Cholan-I)? Readers who are fans of the popular Tamil novelist Kalki may be familiar with his historical novel "Ponniyin Selvan". That novel is woven around the life of Raja Raja Cholan, also known an Arunmoli. Of course, much of the novel and many of the characters in it are fiction although that fiction is wrapped around historical events. What we present in this section are historical facts taken from such authoritative works as Dr. M. Rajamanickam's "Cholar Varalaru", Nilakanta Sastri's "The Cholas" and T. V. Sadasiva Pandarathar's "History of the Later Cholas".
Raja Rajan reigned between 985 AD and 1014 AD. It can be rightly said that the Second Golden Age of Tamil Nadu started with his reign and continued for another two centuries. (The First Golden Age of Tamil Nadu in known Tamil history was in the days of the Third Tamil Academy (Third Tamil Sangam)). He built one of the most glorious empires of South Asia that peaked during the regin of his son Rajendra Cholan - I and continued for another 200 years or so under his sons, grandsons and great grandsons. He was not only a great warrior king in the tradition of Cheran Senguttuvan, Cholan Karikalan and Pandian Nedunchezhian, he was also an able administrator, a patron of the arts and a devote Saivaite Hindu.
During that period, Sinhala kings from Ilankai (now known as Sri Lanka and Ceylon) had the habit of interfering in Tamil Nadu by allying with one Tamil king against another, usually allying with Cheras or Pandias against the Cholas. (Of course, the blame should rightly be put on those Tamil kings who invited foreign interference and not on the Sinhala kings who made use of the opportunity.) So, after decisively defeating the Cheras and Pandias, Raja Rajan Cholan turned his attention to the Sinhalese King Mahinda-V. He assembled a naval armada and sent it to Sri Lanka. The Chola Navy defeated King Mahinda. After the military victory Raja Rajan built a Hindu temple there in Polonnaruva.
Having defeated the enemy in the south, he moved north. The Chola army under the command of Crown Prince Rajendran marched north, all the way up to what is now Bijapur. The army defeated all who opposed its march north, including the powerful army of Chalukya Emperor Satyasraya who ruled the Deccans.
As noted before, Raja Rajan's legacy is not just wars and conquests. He is remembered today primarily for the construction of the Tanjore Big Temple (Thanjavur Peria Koil). The temple is also called "Rajarajeswaram" after him. This Saivaite Hindu temple is one of the most beautiful and magnificent architectural monuments in South Asia. The magnificent tower and the delicate sculptures are truly a feast for the eyes. Not only Hindus from all over the world, but also tourists from around the world visit this temple.
Though Raja Rajan was a devote Saivaite Hindu, he respected other religions. He built Vishnu temples in Mysore after he conquered the region. He not only permitted Silendra Emperor Srimara Vijayottunga Varman to build the Buddhist shrine Chudamanivihara in Tamil Nadu at Nagapattinam, he also contributed money for its construction.
Many arts - sculpture, painting, drama, dance and music - flourished during his time. He conductedd a survey of his kingdom and is considered a major achievement of that time. He divided the kingdom into a number of administrative units and appointed administrative officers for each unit. Villages were governed by local elders (a type of self-government). According to Dr. M. Rajamanickam, Raja Rajan's administrative structure is comparable to modern administrative structure seen around the world.
Raja Raja Cholan is truly one of the greatest rulers in Tamil history. This is in fact the reason why Hindi politicians who dominate and control the Indian Government refuse permission to install his statue within the outside walls of Thanjai Big Temple that he built.

ALAGARKOIL,MADURAI

When people talk about the city of madurai,the one place which overshadows allthe other is the much revered meenakshi temple.But there are many other temples in and around Madurai that are visited by tourists. One such temple is Alagarkoil. The term Alagarkoil actually means Alagar Temple.
Alagarkoil is located at a distance of about 21 km to the east of Madurai at the foot of the Alagar hills. According to history, Malayadvaja Paandian was the first patron of this temple. He was the son of Kulaseekara Paandian, the founder of the city of Madurai. Jaatavarman Sundara Paandian, ruler of Madurai in the period 1251-1270 is credited with gold plating the tower of the sanctum of Alagarkoil. The Naayakaa kings were great patrons of art and architecture. Alagarkoil was also highly patronized by them.
The presiding deity of Alagarkoil is Lord Vishnu. His stone idol is referred to as Kallalgar. There is a very interesting story in Hindu Mythology that is related to him. It is believed that Lord Vishnu visits Madurai in the human form of Alagar to get his sister Meenakshi married to Sundareswarar. He crosses the River Vaigai in a golden horse and this spectacular procession is attended by a large number of people with joyous enthusiasm each year.
According to the Mahabharata, Alagarkoil was visited both by Yudhistira and Arjuna. Statues of Kallalagar in different poses are to be found at Alagarkoil, Madurai . He is seen in seated, standing and reclining postures. Local inhabitants also refer to him as Soundarajan or beautiful king. There is a shrine within the premises of the Alagarkoil dedicated to Karuppa Swamy.
There are a total of 11 Mandapams or halls within the fortified walls of the Alagarkoil in Madurai . There are many ornamented pillars within the halls. They are rich in decorative details. It is rather unfortunate that mural paintings presently exist in only one of the Mandapams. These wall paintings in the Vasanta Mandapam are indeed very impressive. They depict scenes from the Ramayana. The yali or an imaginary lion like beast representing human passions that is to be sighted at the Alagarkoil temple Madurai exhibits intertwining trunks and is much akin to the one that is to be found at the Meenakshi temple.